Vinagre de maçã: benefícios para a saúde, como usar e efeitos colaterais

O vinagre de maçã é um conservante e desinfetante natural de alimentos. É um remédio caseiro comum para tratar problemas digestivos, problemas de pele, verrugas, piolhos, caspa e dor de garganta. É um suplemento dietético popular para perda de peso, controle dos níveis de açúcar e colesterol, redução da pressão alta e aumento da imunidade.

O ácido acético, os fenóis e as bactérias probióticas no ACV podem ser responsáveis ​​por seus supostos benefícios à saúde. Este artigo discute algumas das alegações de saúde do ACV, como usá-lo e seus potenciais efeitos colaterais.

O que é vinagre de maçã?

O vinagre de maçã (ACV) é feito pela fermentação do suco de maçã ( Malus domestica ). O suco fermentado (ou cidra) contém álcool etílico que é convertido em ácido acético por um micróbio chamado Acetobacter (1).

O ACV não pasteurizado ou orgânico contém micróbios. Esses micróbios, como leveduras e bactérias, também são conhecidos coletivamente como “mãe” e são ricos em enzimas e proteínas. Eles dão ao ACV sua aparência turva característica e fornecem benefícios probióticos para o corpo.

O ACV também contém minerais, vitaminas, polifenóis e ácidos lático, cítrico, málico e acético (2). Um estudo relatou que o ácido gálico e o ácido clorogênico eram compostos fenólicos dominantes no vinagre de maçã (3). O ácido acético (5%) é o composto ativo do ACV. É também responsável pelo cheiro forte e sabor azedo característicos. Pode ser responsável por muitos benefícios para a saúde alegados (1).

Evidências anedóticas sugerem muitas alegações de ACV. Vamos explorar a pesquisa científica por trás disso.

Quais são os benefícios do vinagre de maçã?

1. Pode ter propriedades antimicrobianas

Tradicionalmente, o ACV era usado como conservante e desinfetante de alimentos (4). Pode ajudar na prevenção da deterioração dos alimentos, uma vez que impede o crescimento de bactérias, como a Escherichia coli (1), (5).

Um estudo relatou que o ACV apresentou propriedades antifúngicas contra o fungo Candida (6). Outro relato de caso utilizou ACV para o tratamento de candidíase vaginal em uma mulher (7). O vinagre de maçã tem propriedades antimicrobianas. No entanto, mais estudos são necessários para entender suas aplicações terapêuticas.

2. Pode melhorar a digestão

A “mãe” no ACV é uma probiótica. Os probióticos ajudam a melhorar a população microbiana intestinal (8). Existem evidências científicas de que o consumo de alimentos fermentados pode ajudar a manter o intestino saudável (9). Essas boas bactérias ajudam a fornecer nutrientes ao corpo e também previnem o crescimento de patógenos. As bactérias probióticas reduzem a inflamação, aumentam a imunidade e também podem melhorar a saúde mental (10), (11).

ACV contém ácido acético. Estudos em animais relataram que o ácido acético tem potencial para ser usado como tratamento para a colite ulcerosa (12).

Não há informações suficientes para determinar se o ACV ajuda no tratamento do refluxo ácido. Um estudo destacou uma lacuna entre alegações anedóticas e evidências empíricas sobre o uso de ACV para o tratamento de sintomas esofágicos (13).

3. Pode promover a perda de peso

As propriedades antiinflamatórias e anti-adiposidade do ACV podem prevenir a obesidade e complicações cardíacas relacionadas à obesidade induzidas por uma dieta rica em gordura. Isso foi encontrado em estudos com ratos (14). Outro estudo com ratos alimentados com dieta rica em gordura relatou que o ACV pode reduzir o risco de obesidade devido à sua atividade antioxidante (15).

Resultados de estudos em animais concluíram que o ACV tem atividade anti-hiperlipidêmica significativa em ratos com hiperlipidemia (colesterol alto) (16). A perda de peso foi observada em ratos tratados com ACV. Seus parâmetros lipídicos também foram consistentes (16).

Em outros estudos, as cobaias que consumiram ACV por oito semanas apresentaram níveis mais baixos de gorduras ou lipídios não saudáveis ​​(17).

O vinagre também foi eficaz contra a obesidade, de acordo com um estudo japonês (18). Os resultados do estudo indicaram que a ingestão de vinagre reduziu o peso corporal (perda de peso), a massa de gordura corporal, a gordura visceral e os níveis de triglicerídeos séricos em japoneses obesos (18).

Em outro estudo, o vinagre também aumentou a saciedade após uma refeição de pão em indivíduos saudáveis. Isso pode ajudar no combate à obesidade (19). Outro estudo afirma que o uso do vinagre pode ajudar a reduzir a glicemia pós-prandial (20).

No entanto, a comunidade científica está dividida quanto à eficácia do ACV auxiliando na perda de peso. Portanto, precisamos de mais estudos a esse respeito.

4. Pode melhorar a saúde do coração

Estudos em animais revelaram que o vinagre pode reduzir os triglicerídeos e o colesterol no sangue (21). O ácido acético dietético reduziu o colesterol total sérico e o triacilglicerol em ratos alimentados com dietas ricas em colesterol (21), (22), (23).

Um estudo analisou o efeito do vinagre em coelhos hipercolesterolêmicos (22). O vinagre reduziu a maioria dos parâmetros bioquímicos, como colesterol, proteína C reativa (PCR) e apolipoproteína A (ApoA), que podem aumentar o risco de doenças cardiovasculares, como a aterosclerose (22).

Hipertensão ou pressão alta podem causar problemas cardíacos. O vinagre também reduziu a pressão arterial em ratos (24), (25). Esses estudos preliminares em animais precisam ser confirmados em humanos.

5. Pode ajudar a controlar o diabetes

Estudos em ratos diabéticos revelaram que o ACV pode reduzir os níveis de glicose no sangue (26). Em indivíduos saudáveis, o ACV pode reduzir os níveis de açúcar no sangue e a resposta à insulina após uma refeição (20). Entretanto, em indivíduos com diabetes, não retarda o esvaziamento gástrico (27).

A maioria dos estudos afirma que o vinagre reduz os níveis de glicose no sangue (28), (29), (30). No entanto, outros estudos afirmam que o vinagre pode ser mais eficaz na regulação dos níveis de açúcar no sangue em indivíduos saudáveis ​​do que aqueles com diabetes (31).

6. Pode melhorar a saúde da pele

O vinagre de maçã contém alfa-hidroxiácidos, incluindo os ácidos láctico e málico. Esses ácidos têm sido usados ​​extensivamente no cuidado da pele (32).

O ácido lático melhora a hidratação da pele (32), (33). Também esfolia suavemente a pele (descama as camadas mortas da pele), melhora a textura da pele e ajuda a reduzir as linhas finas, estimulando a renovação celular (34), (35). O ácido láctico também é relatado para tratar olheiras e hiperpigmentação quando combinado com ácido tricloroacético (36).

Estudos relataram que o vinagre em uma base de creme melhora a dermatite atópica em ratos (37). Evidências anedóticas sugerem que o ACV pode ajudar a aliviar os sintomas da psoríase, incluindo coceira e manchas escamosas. No entanto, não há dados científicos para apoiar esta afirmação.

ACV tem atividade antimicrobiana. Pode ajudar no tratamento de peles com tendência a acne. No entanto, mais pesquisas são necessárias nesta área.

The topical application of ACV may cause skin burns and skin irritation (38). Hence, practice caution.

7. May Improve Immunity

ACV is rich in antioxidants and phenols. These compounds help in scavenging toxins from cells produced during oxidative stress (39). Many folk remedies use ACV to treat inflammation related diseases, like multiple sclerosis, ankylosing spondylitis, and rheumatoid arthritis.

However, the scientific evidence in this aspect is scarce. On the contrary, a study claimed ACV to be ineffective as an anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory agent in rats with adjuvant arthritis (40).

8. May Help Treat Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) Symptoms

A study investigated the effect of ACV with the mother (the beneficial yeast and bacteria) on reproductive hormones. ACV reduced the levels of estrogen and testosterone but increased progesterone levels in Wistar rats (41).

Research suggests that the intake of ACV can help with regulating ovulatory function in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (42). It was also reported that consuming 15 g of apple vinegar daily for 90 to 110 days helped improve insulin sensitivity and restored regular periods (42).

These are the potential benefits of apple cider vinegar. Some of them are yet to be confirmed in humans. In the following section, we will look at the dosage of ACV and the ways to use it.

Dosage And How To Use

Anecdotal remedies suggest ingesting 1 teaspoon to 2 tablespoons (10–30 ml) of ACV per day. It can be mixed with water and taken or can be added to salad dressings and marinades. Below, we have discussed ACV recipes targeted for specific health concerns (none of these have been backed by research; consult your doctor before trying any):

Digestion

What You Need

• 15-30 mL ACV
• 1 glass of water

Process

Mix the ACV in water and drink it before meals.

Weight Loss

What You Need

• 15-30 mL ACV
• A few drops of lemon juice
• 1 glass of water

Process

Mix the ACV in water and drink it on an empty stomach early in the morning.

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)

What You Need

15 mL ACV

Process

Drink one tablespoon of ACV everyday for around 3-6 months.

Hair Rinse

What You Need

• 10 mL ACV
• 1 tablespoon honey
• A few drops of lemon juice
• Water (as needed)

Process

Mix all the ingredients in water and use this as a hair rinse after shampooing. The vinegar smell would vanish gradually.

Skin Toner

What You Need

• 10 mL apple cider vinegar
• 10 mL rose water
• 20 mL water

Process

1. Mix all the ingredients in water. Dip a cotton ball in this mixture and dab it evenly on your skin. You can also spritz it on your face. Use diluted ACV as concentrated ACV can cause skin burns or irritation.
2. Use a moisturizer after this step.

Mouth Wash

What You Need

• 15 mL apple cider vinegar
• 30 mL water

Process

Use diluted vinegar as a mouthwash. Swirl it around for 20-30 seconds and rinse with water afterwards. This will kill the bacteria in the mouth and keep bad breath at bay.

You can try using ACV in these ways and experience results. However, ACV may also cause side effects in some people.

Apple Cider Vinegar Side Effects

Apple cider vinegar is relatively safe to consume. However, its acidic nature may cause a mild burning sensation in the throat and stomach.

It may cause damage to the tooth enamel and cause dental erosion (43).

In a study, prolonged consumption of ACV had caused hypokalemia (potassium deficiency) in a woman (44).

The topical application of undiluted vinegar can lead to skin burns and irritation (38), (45).

ACV may also cause nausea, acid reflux, burping, flatulence, and irregular bowel movements (46), (47).

Conclusion

Traditionally, apple cider vinegar has been used for cooking, preventing food spoilage, and disinfecting surfaces and vegetables. There are a few preliminary studies that suggest that it is antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory.

Anecdotal remedies have exaggerated its health benefits. There is some gap between its medical claims and scientific data. Hence, you may use ACV, but with caution. Consult your doctor if you have more queries.

Expert’s Answers for Readers Questions

Can I drink apple cider vinegar every day?

There have been reports that prolonged intake of ACV may be harmful to the bones as it interferes with calcium absorption. Hence, do not take it every day.

When should you drink apple cider vinegar?

Generally, it is consumed before meals, but it can be taken anytime.

How does apple cider vinegar detox your body?

There is not enough data to support the claim that ACV detoxifies the body. However, it contains antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds that may help.

How much weight can you lose with apple cider vinegar in a week?

There are no studies available currently about the parameters involved.

What does apple cider vinegar do for your hair?

It has been suggested that it balances the pH of the scalp and helps remove dandruff.

Does ACV affect urine?

No studies have been done in this aspect.

How many times a day can you drink ACV?

ACV can cause adverse effects like nausea and acid reflux when consumed frequently or in excess. Hence, do not take it more than thrice a week or once a day.

What are the benefits of apple cider vinegar and honey?

Anecdotal remedies suggest that ACV with honey may help with weight loss and improve digestion.

How long does it take to detox with apple cider vinegar?

Home remedies suggest that ACV takes about a week to detox your body. However, there is no scientific proof to back this claim.

Which apple cider vinegar is best for weight loss?

ACV with the mother is suggested to be good for weight loss.

Is apple cider vinegar good for kidney stones?

There is very less research in this regard. Hence, it is important to consult a doctor.

Is it OK to drink apple cider vinegar on an empty stomach?uestion

Yes, you can. But practice caution as it may cause side effects like nausea.

Does apple cider vinegar give you energy?

ACV may help regulate blood sugar levels. This may offer energy.

How do you protect your teeth with apple cider vinegar?

You can have ACV in a diluted form. You can also use a straw to prevent the ACV from damaging the enamel of the teeth.

Does apple cider vinegar make you poop?

Folk remedies recommend ACV as a cure for constipation. However, it is known to cause diarrhea when consumed in excess. There is no concrete research to substantiate its claims.

47 sources

A Stylecraze tem diretrizes rígidas de abastecimento e depende de estudos revisados ​​por pares, instituições de pesquisa acadêmica e associações médicas. Evitamos usar referências terciárias. Você pode aprender mais sobre como garantimos que nosso conteúdo seja preciso e atualizado lendo nossa política editorial.

• Yagnik, Darshna, Vlad Serafin e Ajit J. Shah. “Atividade antimicrobiana do vinagre de maçã contra Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus e Candida albicans; regulação negativa de citocinas e expressão de proteínas microbianas. ” Relatórios científicos 8.1 (2018): 1-12.

  ‌Https: //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5788933/

• Xia, Ting, et al. “Nutrients and bioactive components from vinegar: A fermented and functional food.” Journal of Functional Foods (2019): 103681.

  ‌https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S175646461930605X

• Aykın, Elif, Nilgün H. Budak, and Zeynep B. Güzel-Seydim. “Bioactive components of mother vinegar.” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 34.1 (2015): 80-89.

  www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07315724.2014.896230

• BALDAS, Berrin, and ERGİN MURAT ALTUNER. “The antimicrobial activity of apple cider vinegar and grape vinegar, which are used as a traditional surface disinfectant for fruits and vegetables.” Communications Faculty of Sciences University of Ankara Series C Biology 27.1 (2018): 1-10.

  www.researchgate.net/publication/325575469

• Park, Shin Young, Sujin Kang, and Sang-Do Ha. “Antimicrobial effects of vinegar against norovirus and Escherichia coli in the traditional Korean vinegared green laver (Enteromorpha intestinalis) salad during refrigerated storage.” International journal of food microbiology 238 (2016): 208-214.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27665528

• Mota, Ana Carolina Loureiro Gama, et al. “Antifungal activity of apple cider vinegar on Candida species involved in denture stomatitis.” Journal of Prosthodontics 24.4 (2015): 296-302.

• Ozen, Betul, and Muruvvet Baser. “Vaginal Candidiasis Infection Treated Using Apple Cider Vinegar: A Case Report.” Alternative Therapies in Health & Medicine 23.7 (2017).

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29112940/

• Fooks, L. J., and Glenn R. Gibson. “Probiotics as modulators of the gut flora.” British Journal of Nutrition 88.S1 (2002): s39-s49.

  www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/probiotics-as-modulators-of-the-gut-flora/0ECB99C9BCC4A6217AA70A51471E3BBA

• van Hylckama Vlieg, Johan ET, et al. “Impact of microbial transformation of food on health—from fermented foods to fermentation in the gastro-intestinal tract.” Current opinion in biotechnology 22.2 (2011): 211-219.

  www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958166910002363

• Shi, Lye Huey, et al. “Beneficial properties of probiotics.” Tropical life sciences research 27.2 (2016): 73.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5031164/

• Selhub, Eva M., Alan C. Logan, and Alison C. Bested. “Fermented foods, microbiota, and mental health: ancient practice meets nutritional psychiatry.” Journal of physiological anthropology 33.1 (2014): 2.

  ‌

• Shen, Fengge, et al. “Vinegar treatment prevents the development of murine experimental colitis via inhibition of inflammation and apoptosis.” Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 64.5 (2016): 1111-1121.

  pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05415

• Ahuja, Amisha, and Nitin K. Ahuja. “Popular Remedies for Esophageal Symptoms: a Critical Appraisal.” Current gastroenterology reports 21.8 (2019): 39.

  link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11894-019-0707-4

• Bounihi, Abdenour, et al. “Fruit vinegars attenuate cardiac injury via anti-inflammatory and anti-adiposity actions in high-fat diet-induced obese rats.” Pharmaceutical biology 55.1 (2017): 43-52.

  www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13880209.2016.1226369

• Halima, Ben Hmad, et al. “Apple cider vinegar attenuates oxidative stress and reduces the risk of obesity in high-fat-fed male Wistar rats.” Journal of medicinal food 21.1 (2018): 70-80.

  ‌https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29091513/

• Ajaykumar, T. V., et al. “Antihyperlipidemics: effect of apple cider vinegar on lipid profiles.” International Journal of Biological & Pharmaceutical Research 3.8 (2012): 942-945.

  ‌https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ajay_Kumar25/publication/273885296_ANTIHYPERLIPIDEMICS_EFFECT_OF_APPLE_CIDER_VINEGAR_ON_LIPID_PROFILES/links/550f17170cf2ac2905adffe6/ANTIHYPERLIPIDEMICS-EFFECT-OF-APPLE-CIDER-VINEGAR-ON-LIPID-PROFILES.pdf

• Beheshti, Zahra, et al. “Influence of apple cider vinegar on blood lipids.” Life Sci J 9.4 (2012): 2431-40.

  www.researchgate.net/profile/Hamid_Sharif_Nia/publication/260311324_Influence_of_apple_cider_vinegar_on_blood_lipids/links/00b7d530bb6f074e4b000000.pdf

• Tomoo KONDO, Mikiya KISHI, Takashi FUSHIMI, Shinobu UGAJIN & Takayuki KAGA (2009) Vinegar Intake Reduces Body Weight, Body Fat Mass, and Serum Triglyceride Levels in Obese Japanese Subjects, Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 73:8, 1837-1843.

  www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.90231

• Östman, Elin, et al. “Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects.” European journal of clinical nutrition 59.9 (2005): 983.

  ‌

• Johnston, Carol S., and Amanda J. Buller. “Vinegar and peanut products as complementary foods to reduce postprandial glycemia.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105.12 (2005): 1939-1942.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16321601/

• Fushimi, Takashi, et al. “Dietary acetic acid reduces serum cholesterol and triacylglycerols in rats fed a cholesterol-rich diet.” British Journal of Nutrition 95.5 (2006): 916-924.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16611381/

• Setorki, Mahbubeh, et al. “Acute effects of vinegar intake on some biochemical risk factors of atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic rabbits.” Lipids in health and disease 9.1 (2010): 10.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2837006/

• Halima, Ben Hmad, et al. “Apple cider vinegar attenuates oxidative stress and reduces the risk of obesity in high-fat-fed male Wistar rats.” Journal of medicinal food 21.1 (2018): 70-80.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29091513/

• Na, Lixin, et al. “Vinegar decreases blood pressure by down-regulating AT1R expression via the AMPK/PGC-1α/PPARγ pathway in spontaneously hypertensive rats.” European journal of nutrition 55.3 (2016): 1245-1253.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26476634

• Kondo, Shino, et al. “Antihypertensive effects of acetic acid and vinegar on spontaneously hypertensive rats.” Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry 65.12 (2001): 2690-2694.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11826965/

• Iman, Maryam, Seyed Adel Moallem, and Ahmad Barahoyee. “Effect of apple cider Vinegar on blood glucose level in diabetic mice.” Pharmaceutical Sciences 20.4 (2015): 163.

  www.researchgate.net/profile/Maryam_Iman/publication/282379604_Effect_of_apple_cider_Vinegar_on_blood_glucose_level_in_diabetic_mice/links/57b7f77b08aec9984ff2bb2b

• Hlebowicz, Joanna, et al. “Effect of apple cider vinegar on delayed gastric emptying in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a pilot study.” BMC gastroenterology 7.1 (2007): 46.

  link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-230X-7-46

• Johnston, Carol S., Cindy M. Kim, and Amanda J. Buller. “Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high-carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes.” Diabetes care 27.1 (2004): 281-282.

  care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/1/281

• Brighenti, F et al. “Effect of neutralized and native vinegar on blood glucose and acetate responses to a mixed meal in healthy subjects.” European journal of clinical nutrition vol. 49,4 (1995): 242-7.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7796781/

• Shishehbor, Farideh et al. “Vinegar consumption can attenuate postprandial glucose and insulin responses; a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials.” Diabetes research and clinical practice vol. 127 (2017): 1-9.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28292654/

• Lim, Joseph et al. “Vinegar as a functional ingredient to improve postprandial glycemic control-human intervention findings and molecular mechanisms.” Molecular nutrition & food research vol. 60,8 (2016): 1837-49.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27213723/

• Smith, W.p. “Comparative Effectiveness of ?-Hydroxy Acids on Skin Properties.” International Journal of Cosmetic Science.

  onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-2494.1996.tb00137.x

• Algiert-Zielińska, Barbara, et al. “Lactic and Lactobionic Acids as Typically Moisturizing Compounds.” International Journal of Dermatology.

• Tang, et al. “Dual Effects of Alpha-Hydroxy Acids on the Skin.” MDPI , Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 10 Apr. 2018.

  www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/23/4/863

• Smith, Walter P. “Epidermal and Dermal Effects of Topical Lactic Acid.” Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology , Mosby, 22 June 2004.

  www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0190962296906027

• Vavouli, Charitomeni, et al. “Chemical Peeling with Trichloroacetic Acid and Lactic Acid for Infraorbital Dark Circles.” Wiley Online Library , John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 1 Sept. 2013.

  onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jocd.12044

• Lee, Noo Ri et al. “Application of Topical Acids Improves Atopic Dermatitis in Murine Model by Enhancement of Skin Barrier Functions Regardless of the Origin of Acids.” Annals of dermatology vol. 28,6 (2016): 690-696.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5125949/

• Luu, Lydia A., et al. “Apple Cider Vinegar Soaks as a Treatment for Atopic Dermatitis Do Not Improve Skin Barrier Integrity.” Wiley Online Library , John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 22 July 2019.

  onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pde.13888

• Kaushik, and Aryadeep. “Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Response of Antioxidants as ROS-Scavengers during Environmental Stress in Plants.” Frontiers , Frontiers, 11 Nov. 2014.

  www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2014.00053/full

• Ross, Christine M., and John J. Poluhowich. “The Effect of Apple Cider Vinegar on Adjuvant Arthritic Rats.” Nutrition Research , Elsevier.

  www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0271531784800494

• Franca, Okoye Ngozi, and Ekpudjureni Oghenevware. “Effect of Apple Cider Vinegar (ACV) ‘With Mother’ on Progesterone, Testosterone and Estrogen of Wistar Rats.” Journal of Applied Life Sciences International , 19 Mar. 2019.

  pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8323/9c1ac5a2181bca788cb464b8fbc57e6087ec.pdf

• Wu, Di et al. “Intake of vinegar beverage is associated with restoration of ovulatory function in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.” The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine vol. 230,1 (2013): 17-23.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23666047/

• Willershausen, Ines, et al. “In vitro study on dental erosion caused by different vinegar varieties using an electron microprobe.” Clinical laboratory 60.5 (2014): 783-790.

  www.researchgate.net/publication/262013791_In_Vitro_Study_on_Dental_Erosion_Caused_by_Different_Vinegar_Varieties_Using_an_Electron_Microprobe

• Lhotta, Karl, et al. “Hypokalemia, Hyperreninemia and Osteoporosis in a Patient Ingesting Large Amounts of Cider Vinegar.” Nephron, Karger Publishers.

  www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/45180

• Feldstein, Stephanie et al. “Chemical Burn from Vinegar Following an Internet-based Protocol for Self-removal of Nevi.” The Journal of clinical and aesthetic dermatology vol. 8,6 (2015): 50.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4479370/

• Darzi, J et al. “Influence of the tolerability of vinegar as an oral source of short-chain fatty acids on appetite control and food intake.” International journal of obesity (2005) vol. 38,5 (2014): 675-81.

  pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23979220/

• Johnston, Carol S, et al. “A Preliminary Evaluation of the Safety and Tolerance of Medicinally Ingested Vinegar in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes.” Journal of Medicinal Food , U.S. National Library of Medicine, Mar. 2008.

  www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18361754